THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Sociology is a general social
science that ranges from the study of face-to-face interaction to the
systematic analysis of the world order. Despite the breadth of our discipline,
most sociologists agree on certain basic assumptions (aka
"the sociological paradigm") that form the core of our discipline.
The
assumptions of the core sociological paradigm include the following ideas:
1.
Humans have needs that
must be met for survival.
2.
While some human needs
are present at birth, others are shaped by the environment.
3.
Because humans are
incapable of fulfilling all of their needs alone, they form social groups.
4.
As social beings,
humans exist in a context of mutual awareness and interdependence.
5.
Overtime, this context
transforms the simple physical environment into a complex social environment
that produces ordered, patterned ways of thinking (culture) and behaving
(structure).
6.
The goal of sociology
is to understand these patterns and, thereby, explain social order.
Thus, sociologists are
interested in understanding social order by examining the patterns found in
culture and structure. A great deal of sociological research focuses on
understanding patterns found in society. A society is a large social
grouping that shares the same geographical territory and is subject to the same
political authority and dominant cultural expectations. The study of society
not only helps us develop a sociological imagination, but it also reveals the
limitations of myths associated with commonsense knowledge that guides ordinary
conduct in everyday life.
CONTEMPORARY
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
The work of these early
social scientists contributed to the emergence of contemporary theoretical
perspectives in sociology. A theory is a set of logically interrelated
statements that uses concepts and models to describe, explain, and
(occasionally) predict social events. Theories provide a framework or
perspective for examining various aspects of social life. Throughout this
course, you will examine a number of theoretical perspectives. However, most of
these perspectives can be traced to one of three contemporary sociological
theories.
Functionalism, grounded in the work of Emile Durkheim,
has been one of the most influential theories in contemporary sociology.
Functionalist perspectives are based on the assumption that society is a
stable, orderly system characterized by societal consensus. According to
functionalism, societies develop social structures, or institutions, which
persist because they play a part in helping society
survive. These institutions include: the family, education, government,
religion, and economy. An important American sociologist, Talcott
Parsons, stressed that all societies must make provisions for meeting social
needs in order to survive. For example, a division of labor (distinct,
specialized functions) between husband and wife is essential for family
stability and social order.
Robert K. Merton refined
Parson's theory to distinguish between intended and unintended functions of
social institutions. Manifest functions are intended and/or overtly
recognized by the participants in a social unit. Latent functions are
unintended functions that are hidden and remain unacknowledged by participants.
Dysfunctions are the undesirable consequences of any element of society.
Conflict theory often contrasts sharply with the functionalist
perspective. According to conflict perspectives, groups in society are engaged
in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources. Along with Karl
Marx, Max Weber believed that economic conditions were important in producing
inequality and conflict in society; however, Weber also suggested that power
and prestige are other sources of inequality. C. Wright Mills believed that the
most important decisions in the
Symbolic interaction
is the third theoretical perspective.Interactionist perspectives are based on the assumption
that society is the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups. George
Herbert Mead, a founder of this perspective, emphasized that a key feature
distinguishing humans from other animals is the ability to communicate in
symbols - anything that meaningfully represents something else. Some interactionists focus on people's behavior while others
focus on each person's interpretation or definition of a given situation.
Functionalist and conflict perspectives focus primarily on macro-level
analysis - an examination of whole societies, large-scale social structures,
and social systems. By contrast, interactionist
approaches are based on a micro-level analysis - an examination of
everyday interactions in small groups rather than large-scale social
structures. All three theoretical perspectives contribute to our understanding
of human behavior in social groups.
THE SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH PROCESS
A theory is a set of logically interrelated
statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict
social events. Theories are used to guide the research process by helping
sociologists select the hypothesis they will examine.Theories also help sociologists understand
and explain their research findings.To
accomplish these goals, theories rely on concepts and models which guide the
research process and help to interpret research findings. Research is the
process of systematically collecting information for the purposes of testing an
existing theory or generating a new one. When used in conjunction with one
another, theory and research provide the basis for scientific understanding.
Walter Wallace's circular
model of science helps to visualize the relationship between theory and
research. According to Wallace, a scientific theory about the social world will
produce a number of specific research questions (or hypotheses). Once a
hypothesis has been selected, the scientist must test it by collecting data
through carefully controlled observations known as research methods. These observations
represent a sample of the entire population and provide the data that the
scientist will analyze. They also provide a factual (or empirical) basis for
making generalizations about the topic as well as the entire population. In the
final step of this process, the scientist uses the empirical generalizations to
determine if the theory provides a useful explanation of the social world or if
it requires revision. In either case, the scientist is ready to generate new
hypotheses for testing.
As noted, the relationship between theory and research
has been referred to as a continuous cycle, as shown in the figure above
(Wallace, 1971). You will recall that a theory is a set of logically
interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally)
predict social events. A theory attempts to explain why something is the way it
is. Research is the process of systematically collecting information for
the purpose of testing an existing theory or generating a new one. The theory
and research cycle consists of deductive and inductive approaches.
In the deductive approach, the researcher begins with a theory and uses research to test the theory. This approach proceeds as follows: (1) theories generate hypotheses, (2) hypotheses lead to observations (data gathering), (3) observations lead to the formation of generalizations, and (4) generalizations are used to support the theory, to suggest modifications to it, or to refute it.
In the inductive approach, the researcher collects information or data (facts or evidence) and then generates theories from the analysis of that data. Under the inductive approach, we would proceed as follows: (1) specific observations suggest generalizations, (2) generalizations produce a tentative theory, (3) the theory is tested through the formation of hypotheses, and (4) hypotheses may provide suggestions for additional observations.
Although deductive and
inductive approaches begin at different points in the cycle, Wallace argues
that this cyclical process is an ongoing activity that continually yields
additional hypotheses for testing and theory verification. It also underscores
the idea that theory guides the research process at the same time that research
provides the empirical basis for evaluating theory. The unique relationship
between theory and research forms the basis of science.
Research Terminology
Having presented the general
model of scientific inquiry, there are some important concepts to the research
process that you should know. As noted, theory refers to a set of
logically interrelated statements that attempts to explain a social event using
concepts and models. A hypothesis is a statement of the relationship
between two or more concepts. For example, the following hypothesis contains
two concepts: "higher levels of educational attainment increase lifetime
earnings." While concepts are the building blocks of social theory and
form the basis for generating hypotheses, collecting the data or observations
needed to test the hypothesis requires that concepts be transformed into
variables.
Variables are concepts with measurable traits or characteristics
that can change or vary from one person, time, situation, or society to
another. The process of transforming concepts into variables is called operationalization. For example, to test the
hypothesis noted above, we could transform "educational attainment"
into the number of years of education a person has completed or the highest
educational degree earned while "lifetime earnings" could be measured
by annual income through wages. We have now operationalized
our concepts into variables. Within the research process, the independent
variable is presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable, and
the dependent variable is assumed to depend on or be caused by the independent
variable(s). In my example, educational level is the independent variable that
causes a change in annual income (the dependent variable). Often, researchers
will include one or more control variables in their research design.
Control variables are variables that may influence the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables, such as race or gender might influence the
hypothesis noted above. By including them in the data collection, the
researcher can examine their impact, and perhaps introduce statistical
techniques to "control" their effects.
Once the variables have been
selected, it is time to begin making observations that will provide the data
for analysis. However, care must be taken in deciding how to observe them. For
obvious reasons, scientists try to be as objective as possible in collecting
their data. Objectivity requires that the researcher remain personally
neutral during the research process. While complete objectivity may be
impossible, it is nonetheless important. Moreover, while some methods for
obtaining data are more objective than others, the research topic may limit
which method of observation can be used. Research methods are the strategies or
techniques for systematically conducting research that makes observation and
data collection possible. Data collection techniques may be divided into two
major types of research methods known as quantitative and qualitative.
Qualitative Research
Methods
Qualitative research, such
as field studies, differs from quantitative research in several ways.
Qualitative researchers often rely on a handful of in-depth observations rather
than a random sample. This type of research often is built on a collaborative
approach in which the "subjects" are active participants in the
design process, not just passive objects to be studied. Researchers tend to
gather data in natural settings, such as where the person lives or works,
rather than in a laboratory or other research setting. Data collection and
analysis frequently occur concurrently, and the analysis draws heavily on the
language of the persons studied, not the researcher.
Field research is the study of social life in its natural setting.
Researchers collect their data by observing and interviewing people where they
live, work, and play. There are two main types of field research. In complete
observation researchers systematically observe a social process but do not
become a part of it. In participant observation, researchers collect systematic
observations while being part of the activities of the groups they are
studying. In both complete and participant observation techniques, researchers
will limit the size of the their sample to a case
study -- an in-depth, multifaceted investigation of a single event, person, or
social grouping. Case studies often involve ethnography. Ethnography is
a detailed study of the life and activities of a group of people by researchers
who may live with that group over a period of years.
Quantitative Research Methods
When using quantitative
research methods such as experiments or surveys, scientists are concerned with
not only how to make observations, but also with whom to observe. The population
consists of those persons about whom we want to be able to draw conclusions. A sample
is the people who are selected for observation from the population to be
studied. It is very important that a sample accurately represents the
population of interest. When a sample from a larger population has the
essential characteristics of the total population being studied, it is called a
representative sample. A random sample is one that has been
selected by chance: every member of an entire population being studied has the
same chance of being selected.
An experiment is a
carefully designed situation in which the researcher studies the impact of
certain variables on subjects' attitudes or behavior. Because the researcher
can design the experimental situation in advance, it provides a great deal of
control and is considered to be a very objective method for gathering data.
Experimental research designs typically require that subjects be divided into
two groups. First, there is the experimental group which contains the subjects
who are exposed to an independent variable (the experimental condition) to
study its effect on them. Second, there is the control group which contains the
subjects who are not exposed to the independent variable. The experimental and
control groups then are compared to see if they differ in relation to the
dependent variable, and the hypothesis about the relationship of the two
variables is confirmed or rejected.
Researchers acknowledge that
experiments may have a problem known as the
Among sociologists, the most
popular research technique for gathering data is the survey. Surveys are polls
in which researchers gather facts or attempt to determine the relationship
between facts. Survey data are collected by using self-administered
questionnaires, personal interviews, and/or telephone surveys. A questionnaire
is a printed research instrument containing a series of items for the subjects' response. Questionnaires may be self-administered by respondents or administered
by interviewers in face-to-face encounters or by telephone. An interview is a
data-collection encounter in which an interviewer asks the respondent questions
and records the answers. Survey research often uses structured interviews, in
which the interviewer asks questions from a standardized questionnaire. When
conducting surveys, it is very important that the research subjects be a
representative sample of the entire population being studied.
CULTURE
As noted above, all societies contain both structure and culture. Social
structure refers to the reoccurring patterns of behavior that
are found in a human group or society. Culture is the
knowledge, language, values, customs, and material objects that are passed from
person to person and from one generation to the next in a human group or
society. As demonstrated in the
sociological paradigm, all sociologists agree that both structure and culture
are evident and necessary for the survival of individuals and society. However, sociologists often disagree on the
issue of whether structure shapes culture or culture shapes structure.
The Components of Culture
Material culture consists of the physical or tangible
creations that members of a society make, use, and share. The various objects
that make up material culture are called artifacts. Non-material culture
consists of the abstract or intangible human creations of society that
influence people's behavior. The components that comprise non-material culture
include symbols, language, beliefs, values, norms,
and sanctions. While both the material and non-material aspects of
culture are important to understanding human behavior, sociologists generally
use the term culture to refer to the non-material components of culture.
A Symbol is anything
that meaningfully represents something else. Many artifacts also function as
symbols for members of society. Flags, bumper stickers, and clothing are
examples of artifacts that have symbolic meaning. One of the most significant
set of symbols in a culture is found in its language.
Language refers to a set of symbols that expresses ideas and
enables people to think and communicate with one another. As we learn a
language, we internalize our culture. Thus, language also provides a means to
transmit our culture across generations. These functions make language one of
the most important components of culture.
According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language not only allows us to
express our thoughts but also influences our perception of reality. For
example, the use of words to describe ethnic and racial groups can carry highly
charge emotions and influence the way people perceive members of that group.
Likewise, the use of pronouns and nouns may communicate our thoughts, but they
also may communicate subtle ideas about men and women.
Beliefs are to emotionally charged "truths" that people
hold about their world. Beliefs may or may not actually be true, but the
members of a culture believe them to be truths about their world. Beliefs may
include "truths" about religion, politics, human nature, and the
physical world. Beliefs are deeply embedded in our perceptions of reality and
influence our values and norms.
Values are collective ideas about what is right or wrong, good or
bad, and desirable or undesirable in a particular culture. Values often emerge
from belief systems. Some examples of core values in the
Norms refer to established rules of behavior or standards of
conduct that people are expected to follow. For sociologists, norms reflect the
values that people hold. Our everyday world is populated with a variety of
norms that we must follow on a regular basis from obeying traffic laws to
demonstrating proper etiquette. Folkways are a type of norm that
reflects everyday customs. In most situations, folkways may be violated without
serious consequences. Mores refer to norms that are grounded in more
strongly held beliefs and values. Unlike folkways, mores may not be violated
without serious consequences within a particular culture. Taboos are a
type of more so important to society that their violation is considered to be
extremely offensive. Norms prohibiting incest in a society are one example of a
taboo. Finally, laws are formal, standardized norms that have been
codified and enacted by the members of society. Mores and taboos are often
codified into laws.
Sanctions are the means through which norms are enforced. Because norms
can be enforced through rewards and punishments, sanctions may be positive or
negative in nature. Depending on the norm being enforced, sanctions may be
informal or highly formalized. Sanctions vary greatly according to the type of
norm they enforce. Not only does every member of society follow norms, but they
also act as agents of social control when they sanction others for violating
norms or upholding the standards of behavior deemed desirable.
Cultural Change and Diversity
Cultural change
is continual in societies, and these changes are often set in motion by three
processes: Discovery, Invention, and Diffusion. Discovery
is the process of learning about something previously unknown or unrecognized. Invention is the process of combining existing cultural items into a
new form. Diffusion is the transmission of cultural items or social practices
from one group or society to another.
Many times, cultural change
can be a rather problematic process for society and its members. According to William Ogburn,
cultural lag is a gap between the
technical development of a society (material culture) and its moral and legal
institutions (non-material culture). An example of cultural lag can be found in
the many ways that scientific and medical discoveries often contribute to
conflicts over values and beliefs. Can you explain how medical discoveries
related to birth control and/or life support systems could be discussed as
examples of cultural lag?
Cultural diversity is
common in highly complex, heterogeneous societies like the
While cultural diversity
contributes to changes in a society, it may also be a source of conflict and
even violence. Much of the conflict surrounding cultural diversity can be
understood through the concept ethnocentrism.
Ethnocentrism is the assumption that one's own culture and way of life
are superior to all others. All societies and groups exhibit levels of
ethnocentrism which contributes to their cohesion and integration. However,
high levels of ethnocentrism among groups or within a society may contribute to
prejudice and discrimination. In contrast to ethnocentrism, cultural
relativism is the assumption that the behaviors and customs of a society
must be viewed and analyzed within the context of its own culture.
The Sociological Analysis of Culture
Sociologists adopt the
cultural relativist perspective when they examine culture and its impact on
people's lives. However, their research is heavily influenced by the
theoretical approach they adopt.
Functionalist theorists assume that people who share a common language and core
values are more likely to experience consensus and harmony. Thus,
functionalists focus on how a shared culture "functions" to promote
integration and social order.
Conflict theorists
suggest that values and norms reflect the interests of more powerful groups
rather than a more general consensus among all the members of society. Conflict
theorists focus on how the components of a culture help create and sustain the
privileged position of the powerful in society. According to Karl Marx, people
are not aware that they are being dominated because they have false
consciousness.
Interactionist theorists are more
interested in how people create, maintain, and modify culture as they go about
their everyday activities. For interactionists, the
day-to-day actions of people not only provides insight into how culture shapes
the way we think and act, but also explains how a society's culture is
sustained through our interactions with others.
POPULAR CULTURE
Popular Culture is sometimes
referred to as mass culture because it is a popular for the masses. Popular culture emerged during the industrial
revolution, which began in the 1700s. As
such, popular culture was in full swing by 1776 when the
The conditions that were necessary for the emergence of
popular/mass culture in industrialized societies include the following:
Population Growth
Urban Concentration
Common Social, Economic, and Cultural experiences among the
masses
Increasing availability of leisure time among the masses
Rise in literacy rates among the masses
One of the more difficult tasks in the study of popular
culture is trying to define the term.
Perhaps Russell Nye's definition, which has been adopted by Ray Browne,
is one of the most inclusive and popular definitions. They define popular culture as follows: Popular
Culture is a process that includes
all elements of life which are not narrowly intellectual or creatively elitist
and which are generally disseminated through the mass media.
In their efforts to define
popular culture, social scientists have tried to distinguish popular culture
from folk and high cultures, which continue to exist in modern societies.
Folk Art and the
objects produced by actors within the folk culture tends
to display the following characteristics:
Folk Art is highly thematic
Folk Art is very simple in its production
Folk Art is not heavily influenced by technology
Folk Art is not overly concerned with aesthetic contexts
The Folk Artist and their Audience are strongly connected
through common lived experiences
High Art and the
objects produced by actors within the high culture tradition tends
to display the following characteristics:
High Art is produced by known artists
High Art is consciously aesthetic in its context
High Art adheres to normative rules by which it is
evaluated
High Art stresses the subjective aspects of the creator as
important
High Art tends to be exclusive in its attempts to discover
new ways to record and interpret universal experiences.
High Art values technical and thematic complexity
Popular Art and the
objects produced by actors within the popular culture tradition tends to display the following characteristics:
Popular Art is focused on the desires and interests of the
audience
Popular Art conforms to standards set by the general
consensus of its users
Popular Art is dependent on the skills of performer (not
the creator)
Popular Art conforms to the demands and restrictions of
mass production and diffusion
Popular Art produces objects for profit
As noted above, there are
some distinct differences between folk, high, and popular culture.
Perhaps
the most important and telling characteristic of popular culture is that popular
culture involves commodities which are produced for profit.